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Glossary C
 C is a structured, procedural programming language that has been widely used both for operating systems and applications and that has had a wide following in the academic community. Many versions of Unix-based operating systems are written in C. C has been standardized as part of the Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX).
With the increasing popularity of object-oriented programming, C is being rapidly replaced as "the" programming language by C++, a superset of the C language that uses an entirely different set of programming concepts, and by Java, a language similar to but simpler than C++, that was designed for use in distributed networks.
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 C++ is an object-oriented programming (OOP) language that is viewed by many as the best language for creating large-scale applications. C++ is a superset of the C language.
A related programming language, Java, is based on C++ but optimized for the distribution of program objects in a network such as the Internet. Java is somewhat simpler and easier to learn than C++ and has characteristics that give it other advantages over C++. However, both languages require a considerable amount of study.
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 The CAT (Cell phone Authentication Token or Cellular Authentication Token) is TFA (Two Factors Authentication) OTP (One Time Password) software token and Identity Management System that can be used to secure both your Internet Web site and your Intranet.
CAT (Cell phone Authentication Token or Cellular Authentication Token) is a Java program that is downloaded to mobile phones. Once activated, CAT will deliver a unique one-time-password each time you log on. The CAT is activated by entering a unique Seed (a small piece of secret data) in the CAT software on the phone. The CAT is not reliant on Cell phone Network Services being available or SMS text. Using the unique secret data, the CAT token generates a new password each time the user logs in.
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 Cell phone is a type of short-wave analog or digital telecommunication in which a subscriber has a wireless connection from a Cell phone to a relatively nearby transmitter. The transmitter's span of coverage is called a cell. Generally, Cell phone service is available in urban areas and along major highways. As the Cell phone user moves from one cell or area of coverage to another, the Cell phone is effectively passed on to the local cell transmitter.
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 A certificate authority (CA) is an authority in a network that issues and manages security credentials and public keys for message encryption. As part of a public key infrastructure (PKI), a CA checks with a registration authority (RA) to verify information provided by the requestor of a digital certificate. If the RA verifies the requestor's information, the CA can then issue a certificate.
Depending on the public key infrastructure implementation, the certificate includes the owner's public key, the expiration date of the certificate, the owner's name, and other information about the public key owner.
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 The common gateway interface (CGI) is a standard way for a Web server to pass a Web user's request to an application program and to receive data back to forward to the user. When the user requests a Web page (for example, by clicking on a highlighted word or entering a Web site address), the server sends back the requested page. However, when a user fills out a form on a Web page and sends it in, it usually needs to be processed by an application program. The Web server typically passes the form information to a small application program that processes the data and may send back a confirmation message. This method or convention for passing data back and forth between the server and the application is called the common gateway interface (CGI). It is part of the Web's Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
If you are creating a Web site and want a CGI application to get control, you specify the name of the application in the uniform resource locator (URL) that you code in an HTML file. This URL can be specified as part of the FORMS tags if you are creating a form. For example, you might code:
<FORM METHOD=POST ACTION=http://www.mybiz.com/cgi-bin/formprog.pl>
and the server at "mybiz.com" would pass control to the CGI application called "formprog.pl" to record the entered data and return a confirmation message. (The ".pl" indicates a program written in Perl but other languages could have been used.)
The common gateway interface provides a consistent way for data to be passed from the user's request to the application program and back to the user. This means that the person who writes the application program can makes sure it gets used no matter which operating system the server uses (PC, Macintosh, UNIX, OS/390, or others). It's simply a basic way for information to be passed from the Web server about your request to the application program and back again.
Because the interface is consistent, a programmer can write a CGI application in a number of different languages. The most popular languages for CGI applications are: C, C++, Java, and Perl.
An alternative to a CGI application is Microsoft's Active Server Page (ASP), in which a script embedded in a Web page is executed at the server before the page is sent.
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 Citrix is an American corporation that produces software designed to facilitate secure access to applications and content. Citrix offers products for Windows, Macintosh and Linux platforms. The company was founded in 1989 and currently has branches in several countries.
Citrix products include:
- Citrix Access Essentials
- Citrix Access Gateway
- Citrix Access Suite
- Citrix Application Gateway
- Citrix GoToAssist
- Citrix GoToMeeting
- Citrix GoToMyPC
- Citrix NetScaler
- Citrix Password Manager
- Citrix Presentation Server
Citrix offers professional training in the use of their products.
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 In object-oriented programming, a class is a template definition of the methods and variables in a particular kind of object. Thus, an object is a specific instance of a class; it contains real values instead of variables.
The class is one of the defining ideas of object-oriented programming. Among the important ideas about classes are:
- A class can have subclasses that can inherit all or some of the characteristics of the class. In relation to each subclass, the class becomes the superclass.
- Subclasses can also define their own methods and variables that are not part of their superclass.
- The structure of a class and its subclasses is called the class hierarchy.
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 A client is the requesting program or user in a client/server relationship. For example, the user of a Web browser is effectively making client requests for pages from servers all over the Web. The browser itself is a client in its relationship with the computer that is getting and returning the requested HTML file. The computer handling the request and sending back the HTML file is a server.
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 Client/server describes the relationship between two computer programs in which one program, the client, makes a service request from another program, the server, which fulfills the request. Although the client/server idea can be used by programs within a single computer, it is a more important idea in a network. In a network, the client/server model provides a convenient way to interconnect programs that are distributed efficiently across different locations. Computer transactions using the client/server model are very common. For example, to check your bank account from your computer, a client program in your computer forwards your request to a server program at the bank. That program may in turn forward the request to its own client program that sends a request to a database server at another bank computer to retrieve your account balance. The balance is returned back to the bank data client, which in turn serves it back to the client in your personal computer, which displays the information for you.
The client/server model has become one of the central ideas of network computing. Most business applications being written today use the client/server model. So does the Internet's main program, TCP/IP. In marketing, the term has been used to distinguish distributed computing by smaller dispersed computers from the "monolithic" centralized computing of mainframe computers. But this distinction has largely disappeared as mainframes and their applications have also turned to the client/server model and become part of network computing.
In the usual client/server model, one server, sometimes called a daemon, is activated and awaits client requests. Typically, multiple client programs share the services of a common server program. Both client programs and server programs are often part of a larger program or application. Relative to the Internet, your Web browser is a client program that requests services (the sending of Web pages or files) from a Web server (which technically is called a Hypertext Transport Protocol or HTTP server) in another computer somewhere on the Internet. Similarly, your computer with TCP/IP installed allows you to make client requests for files from File Transfer Protocol (FTP) servers in other computers on the Internet.
Other program relationship models included master/slave, with one program being in charge of all other programs, and peer-to-peer, with either of two programs able to initiate a transaction.
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 A command interpreter is the part of a computer operating system that understands and executes commands that are entered interactively by a human being or from a program. In some operating systems, the command interpreter is called the shell.
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 A cookie is information that a Web site puts on your hard disk so that it can remember something about you at a later time. (More technically, it is information for future use that is stored by the server on the client side of a client/server communication.) Typically, a cookie records your preferences when using a particular site. Using the Web's Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), each request for a Web page is independent of all other requests. For this reason, the Web page server has no memory of what pages it has sent to a user previously or anything about your previous visits. A cookie is a mechanism that allows the server to store its own information about a user on the user's own computer. You can view the cookies that have been stored on your hard disk (although the content stored in each cookie may not make much sense to you). The location of the cookies depends on the browser. Internet Explorer stores each cookie as a separate file under a Windows subdirectory. Netscape stores all cookies in a single cookies.txt fle. Opera stores them in a single cookies.dat file.
Cookies are commonly used to rotate the banner ads that a site sends so that it doesn't keep sending the same ad as it sends you a succession of requested pages. They can also be used to customize pages for you based on your browser type or other information you may have provided the Web site. Web users must agree to let cookies be saved for them, but, in general, it helps Web sites to serve users better.
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 Copyright is a set of exclusive rights regulating the use of a particular expression of an idea or information. At its most general, it is literally "the right to copy" an original creation. In most cases, these rights are of limited duration. The symbol for copyright is ©, and in some jurisdictions may alternatively be written as either (c) or (C).
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 C# (pronounced "C-sharp") is an object-oriented programming language from Microsoft that aims to combine the computing power of C++ with the programming ease of Visual Basic. C# is based on C++ and contains features similar to those of Java.
C# is designed to work with Microsoft's .NET platform. Microsoft's aim is to facilitate the exchange of information and services over the Web, and to enable developers to build highly portable applications. C# simplifies programming through its use of Extensible Markup Language (XML) and Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) which allow access to a programming object or method without requiring the programmer to write additional code for each step. Because programmers can build on existing code, rather than repeatedly duplicating it, C# is expected to make it faster and less expensive to get new products and services to market.
Microsoft is collaborating with ECMA, the international standards body, to create a standard for C#. International Standards Organization (ISO) recognition for C# would encourage other companies to develop their own versions of the language. Companies that are already using C# include Apex Software, Bunka Orient, Component Source, devSoft, FarPoint Technologies, LEAD Technologies, ProtoView, and Seagate Software.
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 CRM (customer relationship management) is an information industry term for methodologies, software, and usually Internet capabilities that help an enterprise manage customer relationships in an organized way. For example, an enterprise might build a database about its customers that described relationships in sufficient detail so that management, salespeople, people providing service, and perhaps the customer directly could access information, match customer needs with product plans and offerings, remind customers of service requirements, know what other products a customer had purchased, and so forth.
According to one industry view, CRM consists of:
- Helping an enterprise to enable its marketing departments to identify and target their best customers, manage marketing campaigns with clear goals and objectives, and generate quality leads for the sales team.
- Assisting the organization to improve telesales, account, and sales management by optimizing information shared by multiple employees, and streamlining existing processes (for example, taking orders using mobile devices)
- Allowing the formation of individualized relationships with customers, with the aim of improving customer satisfaction and maximizing profits; identifying the most profitable customers and providing them the highest level of service.
- Providing employees with the information and processes necessary to know their customers, understand their needs, and effectively build relationships between the company, its customer base, and distribution partners.
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 In patent law, a cross-licensing agreement is an agreement according to which two parties grant a license to each other for the exploitation of the subject-matter claimed in patents. In other words, cross-licensing is the mutual sharing of patents between companies without an exchange of a license fee if both patent portfolios are about equal in value. Large corporations like Microsoft use this method to pile up more licenses for technology developed by other companies. They have many patents that can be used for such cross-licensing. Large corporations can force small companies to share their patents with the large company in a cross-licensing agreement or face legal problems from the large company which has patents that are infringed by the small company.
For example, if Sony owns a patent of interest to IBM, and IBM owns a patent of interest to Sony, Sony may grant a license to IBM for the Sony patent while at the same time IBM grants a license to Sony for the IBM patent. Then Sony and IBM will have concluded a cross-licensing agreement, in this hypothetical example. This means each company can make, use, and sell products claimed in each other's licensed patents and that will not constitute an infringement.
If a third party, let's call it InfringerCorp, infringes the Sony patent, Sony can sue InfringerCorp for infringement. In most jurisdictions, a licensee, IBM for example, can become party to the court proceedings and also claim damages from InfringerCorp.
To a large extent, cross-licensing agreements are legal, otherwise this could completely block the exploitation of a technology of which two or more inventions are patented by different companies. As one lawyer for a large electronics company put it: "Everybody invents. They need our stuff, we need their stuff. And so instead of suing each other, we have a meeting every few years and cross-license." This can easily become a complex issue, involving (as far as the European Union is concerned) Art. 81 and 82 of the EC Treaty (abuse of dominant position, etc) as well as licensing directives, cartels, etc. To insure they will have plenty of patents to cross-license, each large company may do "patent flooding" _note-0 which is to patent every conceivable way of doing something.
Some non-patent Intellectual property such as computer software can also be cross-licensed.
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 A cascading style sheet (CSS) is a Web page derived from multiple sources with a defined order of precedence where the definitions of any style element conflict. The Cascading Style Sheet, level 1 (CSS1) recommendation from the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which is implemented in the latest versions of the Netscape and Microsoft Web browsers, specifies the possible style sheets or statements that may determine how a given element is presented in a Web page.
CSS gives more control over the appearance of a Web page to the page creator than to the browser designer or the viewer. With CSS, the sources of style definition for a given document element are in this order of precedence:
- The STYLE attribute on an individual element tag
- The STYLE element that defines a specific style sheet containing style declarations or a LINK element that links to a separate document containing the STYLE element. In a Web page, the STYLE element is placed between the TITLE statement and the BODY statement.
- An imported style sheet, using the CSS @import notation to automatically import and merge an external style sheet with the current style sheet
- Style attributes specified by the viewer to the browser
- The default style sheet assumed by the browser
In general, the Web page creator's style sheet takes precedence, but it's recommended that browsers provide ways for the viewer to override the style attributes in some respects. Since it's likely that different browsers will choose to implement CSS1 somewhat differently, the Web page creator must test the page with different browsers.
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 CSS1 (Cascading Style Sheet, level 1) is the recommendation from the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) for a standard cascading style sheet specification.
A cascading style sheet (CSS) is a style sheet derived from multiple sources with a defined order of precedence where the definitions of a style element conflict. CSS1 describes the recommended approach for Web page designers and browser developers to adhere to.
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